Fiber communications research mainly deals with the relationship among
             system architecture, technology and applications. Current activities have
             included sub-carrier multiplexing and coding techniques for raising the bit
             rate limitations of multimode fiber systems; new modulation techniques to
             offset the effects of dispersion and non-linearity in long distance
             systems; and architectures for survivable communications. Problems
             concerned with broadband access and interfaces between fiber systems and
             wireless are given specific attention at present. (Communications) The
             finest way to surmount distance limitations presented by copper cabling is
             to deploy fiber. Fiber offers many benefits to Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
             networks. Surmounting the restrictions of coaxial and twisted-pair copper
             These distances can be increased to 2,000 meters by multimode fiber
             and to five kilometers by single-mode fibers in half-duplex environments,
             and much more extension is possible in full-duplex installations. But,
             fiber-optic cabling is not a universal remedy. Cost of termination is one
             of its most important challenges. To protect the optical characteristics,
             splices and connections must be cautiously cut and then polished to satisfy
             the need for perfect connections. Legacy equipment and some critical
             networking equipment does not give a fiber interface is the second problem.
             Those that give are prohibitively expensive. Fiber can be connected to
             almost any legacy environment, desktop computer or networking equipment, by
             using copper-to-fiber media converters. The distance problems existing in
             copper can be prevailed over by fiber runs between the media converters and
             the chassis. (Media converters troubleshoot network: technology gives
             Internet access provider flexibility, p.45)
             For next generation ...