Reliability can be established empirically by means of repeated
             trials. In other words, the selected measuring procedure is subjected to a
             number of trials, and if the results are the same for each trial,
             reliability is established (Kiefer, 1997). This also means that persons
             other than the initial researcher can replicate the measuring procedure and
             still produce the same results. There is, therefore, no doubt that any
             conclusions, theories, or claims emanating from the research are based upon
             Although reliability can be established in empirical terms, Kiefer
             (1997) warns that inherent difficulties may still arise with this aspect of
             measurement. The ideal is to measure exactly the issue at the heart of the
             experiment. The difficulty arises when such focus becomes challenging with
             the introduction of elements other than those being measured. This
             frequently occurs when the study area is situated in a natural or social
             setting. When the focus of study and measurement is for example something
             as complex as human behavior, it is unlikely that exactly the same result
             will be obtained each time. In this case the measuring device is the
             researcher's observations. Because the researcher is human, such
             observations are subject not only to flaw, but to multiple interpretations.
             Thus, although more consistent and more empirical than validity,
             reliability still offers its own set of challenges to the measuring
             Validity is a still more difficult concept to pin down. Whereas
             reliability is concerned with the processes and instruments by which
             research is conducted, validity is concerned with the finished research.
             The question here is therefore focused more broadly, and concerns the
             accuracy with which a study reflects the concept being studied. Validity
             therefore aims to establish the success of measurement, while reliability
             ...